Marcus Garvey
Marcus Garvey (born August 17, 1887, St. Ann’s Bay, Jamaica—died June 10, 1940, London, England) was a charismatic Black leader who organized the first important American Black nationalist movement (1919–26), based in New York City’s Harlem.
Largely self-taught, Garvey attended school in Jamaica until he was 14. After traveling in Central America and living in London from 1912 to 1914, he returned to Jamaica, where, with a group of friends, he founded the Universal Negro Improvement and Conservation Association and African Communities League, usually called the Universal Negro Improvement (UNIA), on August 1, 1914. It sought, among other goals, to build in Africa a Black-governed nation.
Failing to attract a following in Jamaica, Garvey went to the United States in 1916 and soon established branches of the UNIA in Harlem and other cities with significant Black communities in the North. By 1919 the rising “Black Moses” claimed a following of about 2,000,000 people, though the exact number of association members was never clear. From the platform of the Association’s Liberty Hall in Harlem, he spoke of a “new Negro” who was proud of being Black. His newspaper, Negro World, described the exploits of Black heroes and of the splendors of African culture. He argued that Black people would be respected only when they were economically strong, and he preached an independent Black economy within the framework of white capitalism. To forward these ends, he established the Negro Factories Corporation and the Black Star Line (1919), as well as a chain of restaurants and grocery stores, laundries, a hotel, and a printing press.
He reached the height of his power in 1920, when he presided at an international convention in Liberty Hall, with delegates present from 25 countries. Wearing military regalia, Garvey led an estimated 50,000 people in a parade through the streets of Harlem to celebrate the event.
His slipshod business methods, however, and his doctrine of racial purity and separatism (he even approved of the white racist Ku Klux Klan because it sought to separate the races) brought him bitter enemies among established Black leaders, including labor leader A. Philip Randolph and W.E.B. Du Bois, head of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Garvey’s influence declined rapidly when he and other UNIA members were indicted for mail fraud in 1922 in connection with the sale of stock for the Black Star Line. He served two years of a five-year prison term, but in 1927 his sentence was commuted by U.S. President Calvin Coolidge, and he was deported. (President Joe Biden pardoned Garvey in 2025.) Garvey was never able to revive the movement abroad, and he died in 1940 in England. His body was returned to Jamaica in 1964 and buried in Kingston.